STRUCTURE OF PROTACTINIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( October 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the electromagnetic laws governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos ) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications . Protactinium (Pa) has no stable isotopes. 29 radioisotopes of protactinium have been characterized, with the most stable being Pa-231 with a half-life of 32,760 years, Pa-233 with a half-life of 26.967 days, and Pa-230 with a half-life of 17.4 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 1.6 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 1.8 seconds. This element also has 3 meta states. The only naturally occurring isotopes are Pa-231, which occurs as an intermediate decay product of U-235, Pa-234 and Pa-234m, both of which occur as intermediate decay products of U-238. Pa-231 makes up nearly all natural protactinium. The primary decay mode for isotopes of Pa lighter than (and including) the most stable isotope Pa-231 is alpha decay, except for Pa-228 to Pa-230, which primarily decay by electron capture to isotopes of thorium. The primary mode for the heavier isotopes is beta minus (β-) decay. The primary decay products of Pa-231 and isotopes of Pa lighter than (and including Pa-227) are isotopes of actinium and the primary decay products for the heavier isotopes of Pa are isotopes of uranium. ' ' Comparing the protactinium-182 (core) of 91 protons and 91 neutrons (odd number) with the lead-164 (core) of 82 protons and 82 neutrons (even number) we conclude that they break the high symmetry of lead which consists of 8 horizontal planes and 2 horizontal lines with a total spin S = 0. (See the fourth figure of lead at the bottom of the page). Under this condition the extra neutrons of Pa-182 for constructing the long-lived Pa-231 fill only 49 blank positions , because the additional p91 and n91 as a deuteron of S = -1 fill the blank positions of the down horizontal line ( -DHL). For understanding better such a structure you can read my STRUCTURE OF ACTINIUM ISOTOPES . Here the 49 extra neutrons cannot give a stable structure but the long-lived Pa-231 with S = -3/2, because the large number of pp repulsions of long range always overcomes such pn bonds. So the Pa-231 based on Pa-182 (core) with S = -1 of 49 extra neutrons has 24 extra neutrons of positive spins and 25 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -1 + 24(+1/2) + 25(-1/2) = -3/2 ' On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the Pa-231 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' STRUCTURE OF Pa-220, Pa-230, Pa-231, Pa-232, Pa-233, Pa-235, AND Pa-239 ' The structures of this group of the above unstable nuclides including the long-lived Pa-231 are based also on the same structure of Pa-182 (core) having S = -1 . For example the unstable Pa-239 with S =-3/2 of 57 extra neutrons has 28 extra neutrons of positive spins and 29 extra neutrons of negative spins, That is S = -1 + 28(+1/2) + 29(-1/2) = -3/2 Here the 49 extra neutrons fill the 49 blank positions with two bonds per neutron , while the 8 extra neutrons which are more than those of the long-lived Pa-231 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ''' '''STRUCTURE OF Pa-228, Pa-229, Pa-234, AND Pa-237 After a careful analysis we found that the structures of this group of unstable nuclides are based on another structure of Pa-182 (core) having S = +3, because the additional p91 and n91 as a deuteron of S = +1 fill the blank positions of the up horizontal line (+UHL). Also one deuteron of the down horizontal line (-DHL) changes the spin from S = -1 to S = +1 giving S = +2. Particularly it goes to the up horizontal line (+UHL) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the +UHL. For example the unstable Pa-237 with S = +1/2 of 55 extra neutrons has 25 extra neutrons of positive spins and 30 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +3 + 25(+1/2) + 30(-1/2) = +1/2 Here the 49 extra neutrons fill the 49 blank positions , while the 6 extra neutrons which are more than those of Pa-231 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Pa-225, Pa-227 AND Pa-238 After a careful analysis we found that the structures of this group of unstable nuclides are based on another structure of Pa-182 (core) having S = -3, because the additional p91 and n91 as a deuteron of S = -1 fill the blank positions of the down horizontal line (-DHL). In this case also one deuteron of the up horizontal line (+UHL) changes the spin from S = +1 to S =-1 giving S = -2. Particularly it goes to -DHL for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down horizontal line existing underr the 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins. For example the unstable Pa-238 with S = -3 has 56 extra neutrons of opposite spins . Here the 49 extra neutrons fill the 49 blank positions, while the 7 extra neutrons which are more than those of Pa-231 make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Pa-212 WITH S = +7 ' After a careful analysis I found that the structures of this unstable nuclide is based on another structure of Pa-182 (core) having S = +5, because the additional p91 and n91 as a deuteron of S = +1 fill the blank positions of the up horizontal line (+UHL). In this case also the two deuterons of the down horizontal line ( -DHL ) change their spins from S = -2 to S = +2 giving S = +4. Particularly they go to +UHL for making horizontal bonds with the deuterons of the up horizontal line existing over the 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins. Under this condition the unstable Pa-212 with S = +7 of 30 extra neutrons, has 17 extra neutrons of positive spins, and 13 extra neutrons of negative spins . That is S = +5 + 17(+1/2) + 13(-1/2) = +7 ' ''' '''STRUCTURE OF Pa-213, Pa-215, Pa-217, Pa-219, Pa-221 AND Pa-224 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above nuclides are based on the structure of Pa-182 (core) having S = -5, because the additional p91 and n91 as a deuteron of S = -1 fill the blank positions of the -DHL. In this case also the two deuterons of +UHL change their spins from S = +2 to S =-2 giving S = -4. Particularly they go to the down horizontal line (-DHL) for making horizontal bonds with the deuterons of the down horizontal line existing under the 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins. For example the unstable Pa-224 with S = -5 has 42 extra neutrons of opposite spins. They fill the 42 blank position, but the large number of pp repulsions of long range always overcomes such pn bonds. Category:Fundamental physics concepts